• Introduction
• Apostolic Fathers
• Sub-Apostolic Fathers
• Ante-Nicene Fathers
• Question Answered
• Bibliography

The Doctrine of Immortality in the Early Church

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by Dr. John H. Roller

THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS

As mentioned above, the Apostolic Fathers who wrote on the subject of human immortality were:

Clement of Rome (AD 30-97)
The writer(s) of the Odes of Solomon (approximately AD 100) Ignatius of Antioch (AD 35-107)
Polycarp of Smyrna (AD 69-155)
Papias of Hierapolis (AD 70-163)
The writer(s) of the Didache (approximately AD 120)
Quadratus of Athens (approximately AD 126)
Mathetes (approximately AD 130)
Clement of Corinth (approximately AD 130)
Barnabas of Alexandria (approximately AD 135)
Aristides of Athens (approximately AD 140)
Hermas of Rome (AD 100-?)

Their writings cover approximately the first half of the second century AD.

CLEMENT OF ROME

Clement I was born approximately AD 30; we do not know where. Origen of Alexandria (AD 185-254) says that he was the Clement mentioned by the Apostle Paul when he wrote, "And I intreat thee also, true yokefellow, help those women which labored with me in the gospel, with Clement also, and with other my fellowlaborers, whose names are in the book of life." (Philippians 4:3). He was ordained to the ministry by the Apostle Peter. According to Eusebius of Caesarea (AD 263-339), who is known as "the Father of Church History," he served as the fourth Bishop of Rome from AD 88-97.³ He was exiled to Crimea during the persecution instigated by the famous Roman Emperor, Trajan, and was martyred there, by drowning.

Clement's Epistle to the Corinthians , commonly known as 1 Clement , is the oldest specimen of post-Apostolic literature we now possess. It was written about AD 95⁴ and was "read in numerous churches (in Eusebius' time), as being almost on a level with the canonical writings."

1 Clement contains several references to immortality and the final destiny of the wicked. For example:

1 Clement 26:1 asks, "Do we then deem it any great and wonderful thing for the Maker of all things to raise up again those that have piously served Him in the assurance of a good faith...?" (implying that God will not "raise up again" those who have not so served Him).

1 Clement 30:7 quotes Job 14:1 as saying, "he that is born of woman...lives but a short time" (as opposed to living forever) (a rather free, but essentially accurate, quotation). The rest of the chapter is a favorite text of many modern Conditionalists, including such statements as, "man lieth down, and riseth not: till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake, nor be raised out of their sleep" (Job 14:12); "If a man die, shall he live again? all the days of my appointed time will I wait, till my change come" (Job 14:14); and "the mountain falling cometh to nought, and the rock is removed out of his place. The waters wear the stones: thou washest away the things which grow out of the dust of the earth; and thou destroyest the hope of man." (Job 14:18-19).

1 Clement 35:1-2 presents "Life in immortality" as one of "the gifts of God" (not as a natural possession of human beings). The full text reads, "How blessed and wonderful, beloved, are the gifts of God! Life in immortality, splendor in righteousness, truth in boldness, faith in confidence, continence in holiness: and all these things are submitted to our understanding."⁵

1 Clement 36:2 says, "By Him (Jesus) the Lord has willed that we should taste of [the knowledge of immortality]." The context makes it clear that the word "we" refers only to the saved, not to the unsaved —implying that the latter will not "taste of [the knowledge of immortality]."

1 Clement 39:2 asks, "For what can a mortal man do, or what strength is there in one made out of the dust?" Here Clement refers to man as "mortal" (not "immortal") and describes him as "one made out of the dust," which may indicate that Clement held the "materialist" form of the monistic or "unitary" view of the nature of man.⁶

1 Clement 41:3 says, "Those, therefore, who do anything beyond that which is agreeable to His (i.e., God's) will, are punished with death (not 'torment')."⁷

1 Clement 44:2 refers to the apostles as having appointed ministers and having given "instructions, that when these should fall asleep (the favorite Conditionalist phrase to describe death), other approved men should succeed them in their ministry."

1 Clement 48:1-2 refers to "brotherly love" as "the gate of righteousness...for the attainment of life" (implying that those who do not have this love have not walked through this "gate" and thus do not have everlasting "life").

1 Clement 50:3 says that, "All the generations from Adam even unto this day have passed away; but those who, through the grace of God, have been made perfect in love, now possess a place among the godly, and shall be made manifest at the revelation of the kingdom of Christ." The next verse, in an attempt to back up this statement, quotes Isaiah 26:20 as saying, "Enter into thy secret chambers for a little time, until my wrath and fury pass away; and I will remember a propitious day, and will raise you up out of your graves." This first half of this "quotation" is a substantially accurate summary of Isaiah 26:20, but the second half is not found in our present text of that verse, and should therefore be understood as Clement's own "interpretation" of what Isaiah was saying. In the process of giving that interpretation, Clement has shown us he believes the "place" of the departed "godly" to be their "graves" (until "the revelation of the kingdom" occurs). Thus it is clear he did not believe the righteous "go to Heaven" when they die!

1 Clement 51:5 says that "Pharaoh and his army and all the rulers of Egypt, 'the chariots and their riders', were sunk in the Red Sea, and perished for no other cause than that their foolish hearts were hardened, after signs and wonders had been wrought in the land of Egypt by God's servant Moses."⁸ The Greek word here translated "perished" is apolonto, which literally means "destroyed" —not "tormented."

1 Clement 53:4 quotes the Lord (in Exodus 32:10) as saying, "let me destroy (not "torment") them, and blot out their name from under heaven" (a nicely "pictorial" way of saying "make them completely nonexistent"). But, again, these words are not found in our present text of Exodus, and must be understood as Clement's own interpretation of the word translated "consume" in Exodus 32:10. Similarly, the next verse (1 Clement 53:5) quotes Moses (in Exodus 32:32) as saying, "blot me also out of the book of the living." But our present text of Exodus 32:32 reads, "blot me, I pray thee, out of thy book which thou hast written." Notice how Clement interprets God's "book"! The passage concludes (in 1 Clement 53:6) with the statement that, "The servant (i.e., Moses) speaks freely to his Lord, and asks forgiveness for the people, or begs that he himself might perish (see comment on 1 Clement 51:5) along with them."

1 Clement 56:16 predicts the reader's death by saying, "thou shalt come to the grave" (not "go to Heaven").

1 Clement 57:4-10 quotes "Wisdom" (Proverbs 1:20) as saying, in Proverbs 1:26, "I too will laugh at your destruction" (the King James Version translates this word, in this context, as "calamity"), and, in Proverbs 1:32-33, "For, in punishment for the wrongs which they practiced upon babes, shall they be slain (not "tormented"), and inquiry will be death (in this case, the King James Version uses the word "destroy" at this point) to the ungodly; but he that heareth me shall rest in hope and be undisturbed by the fear of any evil."

Again, 1 Clement 59:1 describes God as the one "who (among other things) 'destroyest' the calculations of the heathen" —quoting Psalm 33:10, which reads, "The LORD bringeth the counsel of the heathen to nought: he maketh the devices of the people of none effect." Evidently Clement believed that to "destroy" something was the same as "bringing" it to "nought," or reducing it to nonexistence.

Clement never uses the terms "immortal soul" or "immortality of the soul"⁹ and never speaks of a process of punishment which goes on and on throughout eternity. "Clement clearly believed that immortality was conditional – to be bestowed on the righteous only."¹⁰

THE WRITER(S) OF THE ODES OF SOLOMON

The identification of the writer(s) of the Odes of Solomon is unknown.¹¹ What is known with certainty is that King Solomon lived and reigned during the tenth century BC and the odes, which date to no earlier than the late first century AD, were not written by him. The work is therefore properly classified as a pseudepigraphon.

Scholars have long debated the identification of the group responsible for producing the odes. Judaism, Christianity and Gnosticism have all been proposed as potential sources. Since the odes do not mention the Temple or the Mosaic Law, they do not appear to be of Jewish origin. They speak of a Messianic figure, but in terms not typical of orthodox Christianity. Since they don't fit neatly into either Judaism or orthodox Christianity, perhaps they derived from a Gnostic source?

Prior to the discovery of English scholar J. Rendell Harris (see discussion below), Ode 1 was known from a Gnostic text written in Coptic. In Ode 8 God is represented in rather untypical Jewish-Christian phraseology as having breasts. When milked by the Holy Spirit, believers are nurtured with salvivic milk (the Son). Some have concluded from these circumstances that the odes are Gnostic in origin. However, the general consensus of scholars is that the true origin is most probably to be found in early Jewish Christianity.

The exact date of the composition is unknown. Estimates of dates range from late in the first century AD (by those scholars believing that the composition is from the very early Jewish-Christian church) to as late as the third century AD (by those who believe the composition is Gnostic in origin). Many scholars recognize a possible influence from Jewish apocalyptic thought, and concepts similar to those expressed in the Dead Sea Scrolls are found in the odes. If this influence does in fact exist, then a composition date near AD 100 would be likely.

It is reasonable to conclude that the work was most likely composed in the first half of the second century AD. If this conclusion is correct, then the Odes of Solomon falls within the desired time period (95 AD – 325 AD) targeted in this book for evaluation of the view presented therein on the issue of human immortality.

The odes were virtually lost to mankind until discovered by J. Rendel Harris in 1909 in some old Syriac documents that he had procured sometime earlier during a trip to the Middle East. The manuscript in his possession was lacking the opening leaves and, of the 42 odes, Ode 1 was missing in part and Ode 2 altogether. Previous to Harris's discovery, the odes were known only through notations in lists of apocryphal books, excerpts in the Coptic Pistis Sophia , and from a Latin quotation of Ode 19 by Lactantius in the fourth century AD. Perhaps it bears repeating that Ode 1 is known from a Gnostic source. Ode 2 has never been located.

Why were the Odes of Solomon written? They are poetic in form and bear a striking resemblance to the Psalms contained in the Jewish and Christian canons. The odes quote neither from the Old Testament nor from the New Testament. Charlesworth maintains that the writer was influenced by the former and by the traditions of the latter. He sees a major dependence on the Davidic Psalms and believes there is sufficient evidence to support the assumption that the writer(s) knew them both in Hebrew and Greek. He concludes that the Odes of Solomon is the earliest known Christian hymnbook.

In my review of Charlesworth's English translation of the odes, I found references bearing on the issue of human immortality in 23 of the extant 42 odes. I shall briefly examine each of these passages in turn and propose a conclusion on the view on human immortality presented therein.

Ode 3:8 reads, "Indeed he who is joined to Him who is immortal, truly shall be immortal." The "Him" in this passage refers to God. Those who are joined to the Immortal One shall be immortal. This suggests that those who are not joined to God shall not be immortal.

Ode 5:14 reads, "And though all things visible should perish, I shall not die." It is not clear at this point in the ode whether the writer is claiming that he already possesses immortality, and therefore cannot die, or if he is hinting at a future resurrection to immortality. However, we should note that this verse equates "perish" with "death."

Ode 6:15 reads, "Even living persons who were about to expire, they have held back from death." In this verse we find an equating of "expire" with "death." Those who still draw breath, though feebly, are held back from losing what is left of their breath and passing from the state of living to the state of death.

Ode 7:24 reads, "And let there not be anyone who breathes that is without knowledge or voice." This is an admonition for all who breathe (that is, for all who are alive) to acquire knowledge of God and speak boldly and joyfully of their knowledge. Those without breath are dead and have no ability to speak.

Ode 8:21-22 reads, "And you who were loved in the Beloved, and you who are kept in Him who lives, and you who are saved in Him who was saved. And you shall be found incorrupt in all ages, on account of the name of your Father." The "Beloved" refers to the unnamed Messiah. The Messiah himself is said to be saved and those found in him are saved. This at the very least implies that those not found in Messiah are not saved.

Ode 9:4 reads, "For in the will of the Lord is your life, and His purpose is eternal life, and your perfection is incorruptible." This verse associates the life of the believer with the purpose of God – that is, eternal life. This perfection is said to be "incorruptible." Presumably, one who is not a believer may anticipate that his/her status before God is imperfect and therefore will be found "corruptible."

Ode 9:7 reads, "And also that those who have known Him may not perish, and so that those who received Him may not be ashamed." This verse equates "knowing God" with the prospect (or hope?) of not "perishing." It further suggests a link between "perish" and "shame." Those who know God will not be ashamed. Those who have not known Him will be ashamed.

Ode 10:2 reads, "And He has caused to dwell in me His immortal life, and permitted me to proclaim the fruit of His peace." Here we see that God causes immortal life to dwell in the believer. The converse is implied for those who do not believe. That is, God will not cause immortal life to dwell in the unbeliever.

Ode 11:12 reads, "And from above He gave me immortal rest, and I became like the land that blossoms and rejoices in its fruits." This passage speaks of God giving the believer immortal rest. Immortality is thus presented as something that is given, rather than something that one already possesses.

Ode 15:8-10 reads, "I put on immortality through His name, and took off corruption by His grace. Death has been destroyed before my face, and Sheol has been vanquished by my word. And eternal life has arisen in the Lord's land, and it has been declared to His faithful ones, and has been given without limit to all that trust in Him." This verse is speaking about the Messiah putting on immortality. One does not put on something which one already possesses. Immortality is contrasted with corruption. Death, which is said to be destroyed by Messiah putting on immortality, is destroyed by this act. Death is also associated in this passage with Sheol, i.e. the place of the dead. The clothing of Messiah introduces eternal life in God's land. This suggests that, prior to this act, eternal life was not seen in God's land. If there was no eternal life found in the land prior to this event, then the opposite state, i.e. mortal life, is all that existed in the land.

Ode 22:8-10 reads, "And It chose them from the graves, and separated them from the dead ones. It took dead bones and covered them with flesh. But they were motionless, so It gave them energy for life." Here the word "It" refers to the right hand of God, i.e. Messiah. It is the Messiah who chooses (rescues?) believers from their graves. This choosing separates the chosen from those who are not chosen. The ones who are not chosen remain behind in the grave. They are in a state of death. Messiah is said to take "dead bones," not "live bones," and cover them with flesh. Those who are so clothed with flesh are motionless until Messiah gives them energy (spirit?) for life, that is, reanimates them. (This sounds very much like a description of resurrection from death to life. This observation may not seem significant but it will be seen to be when compared with Charlesworth's view, which will be given below.) In contrast, those who are not chosen are not clothed with flesh, their bones remain dead and they are not given energy to become re-animated.

Ode 23:20 reads, "Then all the seducers became headstrong and fled, and the persecutors became extinct and were blotted out." The "seducers" are those who have been seduced into unbelief and go about seducing others to unbelief. They flee away from, rather than running to, the source that is able to save them from death. They are said to become "extinct" and "blotted out." This means that they will die and the very remembrance of them will be removed.

Ode 24:9 reads, "And all of them who were lacking perished, because they were not able to express the word so that they might remain." Those who are lacking (in knowledge and belief) will perish. As we have observed previously, the writer equates "perish" with "death." These persons are not able to express the word i.e. the confession of faith in Messiah. Is that inability due to their lack of knowledge/faith or is it their inability to speak because they have died? Both understandings are possible.

Ode 26:11 reads, "Who can interpret the wonders of the Lord? Though he who interprets will be destroyed, yet that which was interpreted will remain." This is a difficult text, but it appears to be saying that although he who interprets God's acts is destroyed in death, the interpretation itself cannot be destroyed. This appears to me to be a reflection on the mortality of even those who are righteous. In other words, all human beings, whether righteous or wicked, will be destroyed in death. As we have seen in other passages, this destruction is not final for the righteous believer, though it is for the wicked unbeliever.

Ode 28:6-8 reads, "Because I am ready before destruction comes, and have been set on His immortal side. And immortal life embraced me, and kissed me. And from that life is the Spirit which is within me. And it cannot die because it is life." This verse seems to be an echo of Ode 26:11 . The righteous man prepares himself for the destruction that all men must endure. He is confident that he has already been assured through his faith in Messiah that he will not remain in a state of destruction. His faith places him on the side of the one who is immortal and who has the ability to grant him immortality. Because of his faith, he is embraced (or has the sure hope of being embraced) by immortality. Conversely, those lacking this faith can hold no such sure hope. The writer goes on to link immortal life with the Spirit that is within, or will be in him again when his dead bones are clothed again with flesh and energized to become capable of motion. His immortality depends on the immortality of the energizing Spirit.

Ode 28:17 reads, "And I did not perish, because I was not their brother, nor was my birth like theirs." The speaker in this verse is apparently the Messiah. He is not denying that he died. He is claiming that he has been rescued from the grave while his enemies either have not been (or will not be) so rescued.

Ode 29:4 reads, "And he caused me to ascend from the depths of Sheol, and from the mouth of death He drew me." The "he" in this verse refers to the Messiah. The writer is saying that Messiah has caused him to come out of the grave. This appears to be another example of resurrection of the believer from the grave. The writer equates "Sheol" with "the mouth of death."

Ode 29:10 reads, "And the Lord overthrew my enemy by His Word, and he became like the dust which a breeze carries off." The writer's enemy, the unbeliever, becomes like dust that is carried off in the wind. This sounds very much like the reduction of a person to ashes (in the lake of fire?) and the dissolution, or scattering, of the once united components of the body. This carries the connotation of utter destruction of the unbeliever.

Ode 31:7 reads, "And possess yourselves through grace, and take unto you immortal life." Immortal life is something that the writer urges his reader to take unto themselves. There is no need to urge someone to take unto themselves something they already possess.

Ode 33:9 reads, "Be not corrupted nor perish." In this passage we find a parallel between "corrupted" and "perish." The writer is admonishing his readers to avoid this terrible end.

Ode 33:12 reads, "And they who have put me on shall not be falsely accused, but they shall possess incorruption in the new world." The "me" in this verse is Grace personified. Those who accept God's grace will possess incorruption in the age to come. This suggests that those who do not accept God's grace will not possess incorruption in that future day.

Ode 34:6 reads, "Grace has been revealed for your salvation. Believe and live and be saved." Salvation (from the penalty of sin, death) is found only through accepting the grace of God. Those who believe and live a righteous life will be saved. In contrast, those who do not accept God's grace are unbelievers. They will not live righteously and will not see salvation.

Ode 38:3 reads, "And became for me a haven of salvation, and set me on the place of immortal life." In context, it is Truth personified that sets the believer on the place of immortal life. Those who are not guided by Truth are not set on the place of immortal life. They remain set on the place of mortal life.

Ode 39:12 reads, "And they are neither blotted out, nor destroyed." This verse is speaking of the sure path of Messiah's footsteps. Just as his footsteps are not "blotted out, nor destroyed," neither will the footsteps of those who follow in Messiah's path – who place their trust in him. Those who do not obediently follow Messiah walk a different path. There is no such assurance of protection from being "blotted out, nor destroyed" for those walking another path.

Ode 40:6 reads, "And His possessions are immortal life, and those who receive it are incorruptible." God's possession is immortal life. It is something that belongs to Him and man must receive it as a gift from Him in order to be incorruptible. If man possessed immortal life inherently, there would be no need to receive the gift of immortality from Him. Those who do not receive the gift are corruptible.

Ode 41:3 reads, "We live in the Lord by His grace, and life we receive by His Messiah." The "life" we receive by God's Messiah is that of immortality. There is no immortality for man apart from accepting the grace of God. That immortal life is dispensed by God's Messiah. Those who do not follow the Messiah do not receive life in the age to come.

Ode 41:11 reads, "And His Word is with us in all our way, the Savior who gives life and does not reject ourselves." God's "Word," the "Savior," is His Messiah. He gives (immortal) life to those who follow him. Those who do not follow Messiah will be rejected. In other words, those who will not follow Messiah will not receive (immortal) life from him.

Ode 41:15 reads, "The Messiah in truth is one. And He was known before the foundations of the world, that He might give life to persons for ever by the truth of His name." This verse restricts the gift of life to persons who accept the truth that the person able to give the gift is God's Messiah. Since all persons have life, the "gift of life" implies that Messiah is able in the name of his God, by His authority, to grant something that man lacks in his life. That something is immortality, but only for those who believe and follow him.

Ode 42:10-13 reads, "I was not rejected although I was considered to be so, and I did not perish although they thought it of me. Sheol saw me and was shattered, and Death ejected me and many with me. I have been vinegar and bitterness to it, and I went down with it as far as its depth. Then the feet and the head it released, because it was not able to endure my face." The speaker in this passage is Messiah. His enemies thought they had caused him to perish. Ultimately, they have not. The place of the dead (the grave) and death were not able to hold him. This vivid imagery describes the resurrection of Messiah from the dead. As we have seen in earlier passages, the hope of mortal man is to be resurrected from the dead, by the one who defeated death and the grave.

Without question, the author(s) of the Odes of Solomon presented a view on human immortality that is clearly Conditionalist in tenor. The description of dead bones being clothed with flesh and being re-animated by the injection of spirit is the classic description of resurrection from the dead. The author is blunt in confining this life to those who believe and follow Messiah.

Immortality is the possession of God alone. He granted it to His Messiah when He resurrected him from the place of the dead. The once mortal Messiah has put on immortality. It is this same Messiah that will resurrect from the place of the dead those who follow and obey him, and clothe them with immortality.

Charlesworth's comments on the concept of immortal life pictured in the odes are somewhat perplexing. He writes, "The Odist professes neither the Greek concept of an immortal soul that is transmigrated from one body to another nor the Jewish concept of the resurrection of the body…The Odist rather exults in his salvation and experience of immortality because he has taken off a corrupt garment and put on a garment of incorruption…All of this language is used to state emphatically that his immortality is geographically here and chronologically now."¹²

Certainly the odes do not profess the Greek concept of an immortal soul, even without speaking of transmigration "from one body to another." However, the odes do not fail to express the Jewish concept of the resurrection of the body.

Charlesworth understands the odist to say that the change from corruption to incorruption has literally occurred in the odist's natural lifetime – it is something that has already been obtained by the followers of Messiah. But it seems clear that the odist is expressing the sure hope that the follower has in Messiah. It is hope held in prospect; the literal accomplishment is sure but reserved for the day when Messiah bodily resurrects the believer from the dead and clothes him with immortality.

I acknowledge both that I lack Charlesworth's academic credentials and that my understanding of the odes may be biased by my own belief in the Jewish concept of human immortality. It is possible that I am reading something into the text that is not there. Keeping that concession in mind, I am respectfully suggesting for consideration the proposition that the odist does in fact express the Jewish concept of a bodily resurrection of mortal believers to immortal life in the age to come.

IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH

Ignatius Theophorus (this nickname means "the Bearer of God") was born approximately AD 35, probably in Syria. He was a pupil of the Apostle John, and served as the third Bishop of Antioch at the end of the first century and the beginning of the second. He was martyred at the Colosseum in Rome on Monday, December 20, AD 107, by being thrown to the lions.¹³

During his final journey (to Rome), Ignatius wrote seven Epistles, usually referred to as Ig. Ephesians , Ig. Magnesians , Ig. Trallians , Ig. Romans , Ig. Philadelphians , Ig. Smyrnaeans , and Ig. Polycarp .

These Epistles contain many references to immortality and the final destiny of the unsaved. For example:

Ig. Ephesians 5:7 quotes John 3:36 as saying, "he who does not obey the Son shall not see life" (this is a substantially accurate quotation, except that Ignatius substitutes "obey" for John's "believe"). The point is that the unsaved will not experience "life" after their judgment.

Ig. Ephesians 7:1 describes the final destiny of those who "practice things unworthy of God" as "destruction" (not torment!), and the following verse (7:2) quotes Proverbs 11:3 as saying, "the destruction of the ungodly is sudden" (actually, Proverbs 11:3 says, "the perverseness of transgressors shall destroy them" —not exactly the same statement, but a similar statement using the same key word, "destroy"). Later in the same chapter (7:5-7), Ignatius says that "Jesus...was...immortal" though living "in a mortal body" and that "He became subject to corruption (i.e., the disintegration of the body that follows death), that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal (or, "save") them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts." If our "souls" must be freed from "death," they certainly cannot be "immortal" as Ignatius says Jesus was (i.e., before He "became subject to corruption")!

Ig. Ephesians 16:3, describing the fate of false teachers, says that "those that corrupt mere human families are condemned to death" and that those "who endeavor to corrupt the Church" will "suffer everlasting punishment" precisely because Jesus, for the sake of the Church, "endured the cross, and submitted to death!" Apparently Ignatius saw "death" and "everlasting punishment" as essentially the same thing. In the next verse (16:4), he goes on to say that whoever "sets at nought His (i.e., Christ's) doctrine, shall go into hell." —and, in the following verse (16:5), that "In like manner, every one that has received from God the power of distinguishing, and yet follows an unskillful shepherd (i.e., a false teacher), and receives a false opinion for the truth, shall be punished." Again, he seems to equate the "punishment" with "hell," which, in the previous verse, he had equated with "death." For Ignatius, then, the terms "death," "hell," and "everlasting punishment" would seem to be interchangeable, and all of them the literal opposite of "immortality."

Ig. Ephesians 17:1 says, "For this end did the Lord receive ointment on his head that he might breathe immortality on the Church."¹⁴ (without such a "breathing," therefore, no human being would possess "immortality").

Ig. Ephesians 20:2 refers to the bread of Holy Communion as "the medicine of immortality, and the antidote which prevents us from dying, [which causes] that we should live forever in Jesus Christ." Again, Ignatius contrasts "immortality" and living "forever" with "dying" (not "undergoing eternal torment"!).

Ig. Magnesians 5:1 says, "Seeing, then, that all things (including, as we will see momentarily, human lives) have an end, and there is set before us life (meaning, of course, "eternal" life) upon our observance [of God's precepts], but death (not "eternal torment"!) as the result of disobedience,...let us flee from death, and make choice of life."

Ig. Magnesians 10:1 reads, "For were He to reward us according to our works, we would cease to be." (The Greek expression here translated "cease to be" is ouketi esmen.)

Ig. Trallians 2:1 says, "For when you are in subjection to the bishop as to Jesus Christ it is clear to me that you are living not after men, but after Jesus Christ, who died for our sake, that by believing on his death you may escape death (not 'torment')."¹⁵

Ig. Trallians 8:3, referring to Jesus, says, "He gave Himself a ransom for us, that He might cleanse us by His blood from our old ungodliness, and bestow life on us when we were almost on the point of perishing through the depravity that was in us."

Ig. Trallians 11:3, referring to certain false teachers, says, "the children of the evil one...produce death-bearing fruit (i.e., their false teaching), whereof if any one tastes, he instantly dies, and that not a mere temporary death, but one that shall endure for ever." (Notice that Ignatius says that their "death" shall "endure for ever," not their "souls"!)

By contrast to those who fall victim to the false teachers, Ig. Trallians 11:8 says, "Christ invites you to [share in] His immortality, by His passion and resurrection, inasmuch as ye are His members." So, according to Ignatius, the "members" of the Body of Christ (i.e. Christians) are invited to experience immortality in contrast to the victims of false teachers, who are threatened with a "death" that shall "endure for ever."

In Ig. Romans 4:2, Ignatius says, in regard to his approaching martyrdom, "Rather entice the wild beasts that they may become my tomb, and leave no trace of my body, that when I fall asleep I be not burdensome to any."¹⁶ Note that he says, "fall asleep," not "go to Heaven."

In Ig. Philadelphians 3:1, in a discussion of those who follow false teachers, Ignatius refers to the Devil (who "sponsors" false teachers) as "the destroyer of men"; a few verses later, in Ig. Philadelphians 3:7-10, he states that, "if any man does not stand aloof from the preacher of falsehood, he shall be condemned to hell.... Have no fellowship with such a man, lest you perish along with him, even should he be your father, your son, your brother, or a member of your family." Note that in this chapter Ignatius defines "condemnation to hell" as "destruction" and "perishing," not as "torment."

Ig. Philadelphians 8:6 refers to "Jesus Christ, to disobey whom is manifest destruction." (Again, not "torment.")

Ig. Smyrnaeans 6:1-2 boldly states, "Let no man deceive himself. Unless he believes that Christ Jesus has lived in the flesh, and shall confess His cross and passion, and the blood which He shed for the salvation of the world, he shall not obtain eternal life, whether he be a king, or a priest, or a ruler, or a private person, a master or a servant, a man or a woman." (If "eternal life" must be "obtained" —and there is a possibility that one might "not obtain" it, then it is clearly not something everyone inherently possesses.) Later in the same chapter (in Ig. Smyrnaeans 6:7), Ignatius quotes John 17:3 as saying, "This is life eternal, to know the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom He has sent." This is a substantially accurate quotation —the only change from the original being that Jesus spoke to God, in the second person, while Ignatius alters the quotation to the third person form —and, incidentally, this verse is yet another "favorite" of many modern Conditionalists, who use it to demonstrate that those who do not "know" God do not possess "life eternal."

And in Ig. Polycarp 2:8, he admonishes his fellow bishop, "Be sober as God's athlete. The prize is immortality and eternal life, of which you have been persuaded."¹⁷ If "immortality and eternal life" is a "prize," then it is obviously not something all human beings naturally possess!

In all his epistles, Ignatius "is utterly silent in regard to any Innate Immortality of the soul or anything akin thereto."¹⁸ I conclude, therefore, that he must be classified as a Conditionalist.

POLYCARP OF SMYRNA

Polycarp was born approximately AD 69 in Smyrna. He was a pupil of the Apostle John, and as a young man "was brought into contact with many who had seen Christ" in person. He served as Bishop of Smyrna during the first half of the second century. A letter from the church at Smyrna to the church in Philomelium, commonly known as The Martyrdom of Polycarp , preserves in meticulous detail the story of how Polycarp was burned at the stake in Smyrna on Saturday, February 23, AD 155, for refusing to give up his faith in Jesus.¹⁹ The letter records his famous statement, "Eighty and six years have I served Him, and He never did me any injury: how then can I blaspheme my King and my Savior?"

According to Irenaeus of Lyons (AD 130-202), Polycarp wrote several Epistles, but only one is available today —his Epistle to the Philippians , written around AD 109 as a "cover letter" for a collection of the writings of Ignatius of Antioch which Polycarp was sending to the church at Philippi. This Epistle is commonly referred to as Poly. Philippians .

Poly. Philippians does not contain many direct references to immortality and the final destiny of unbelievers, but there are several indirect references to this topic:

Poly. Philippians 2:2 says, "Now, 'he who raised him' (i.e., Jesus) from the dead 'will also raise us up' if we do his will, and walk in his commandments and love the things which he loved, refraining from all unrighteousness, covetousness, love of money, evil speaking, false witness, 'rendering not evil for evil, or railing for railing', or blow for blow, or curse for curse."²⁰ (implying that he will not "raise us up" if we don't do his will).

Poly. Philippians 5:2 similarly states, "Likewise must the deacons be blameless before his righteousness, as the servants of God and Christ and not of man, not slanderers, not double-tongued, not lovers of money, temperate in all things, compassionate, careful, walking according to the truth of the Lord, who was the 'servant of all'. For if we please him in this present world we shall receive from him that which is to come; even as he promised to raise us from the dead, and that if we are worthy citizens of his community, 'we shall also reign with him', if we have but faith."²¹ Notice again the threefold repetition of the "conditionalist" word if, indicating that we shall not "receive from him that which is to come," he will not "raise us from the dead," and we shall not "reign with him" if we do not "please him," do not be "worthy citizens of his community," and do not have faith.

Poly. Philippians 7:1 says that ."..whosoever perverts the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts, and says that there is neither a resurrection nor a judgment, he is the first-born of Satan."

On the other hand, Poly. Philippians 9:1-2 says that "Ignatius, and Zosimus, and Rufus,... and... Paul himself, and the rest of the apostles.... are [now] in... the presence of the Lord..." -¬perhaps indicating that Polycarp should be listed among those Conditionalists who believe that Christians go directly to Heaven at death. Note, however, that this passage says nothing at all about the fate of unbelievers, which is the question at issue between Conditionalists and Naturalists. Also, note that the word "now" is printed in brackets, indicating that the translator (Dr. Cleveland Coxe) supplied it on the theory that it is "implied" in the Greek text, though it is not actually included in it. Finally, note that Polycarp says these deceased apostles "are [now] in... the presence of the Lord...," not that they are "in Heaven" —since the Lord is known to be omnipresent, this isn't really saying a whole lot.

The Martyrdom of Polycarp also contains several references to these topics, some of which are purported to be quotations from Polycarp himself, as, for example, the following:

"You (referring to the proconsul) threaten me with fire which burns for an hour, and after a little is extinguished, but [you] are ignorant of the fire of the coming judgment..., reserved for the ungodly." (Martyrdom 11:4)

"I give You (referring to God) thanks that You have counted me worthy of this day and this hour, that I should have a part in... the resurrection...both of soul and body,..." (Martyrdom 14:3).

(Other references to immortality in The Martyrdom of Polycarp should be studied separately, as not necessarily reflecting Polycarp's own views, but the views of the authors of the letter. I have not included these authors as "sources" for this book, since it is uncertain how much of the present text of the letter is original, and how much reflects interpolation by later copyists, several of whom are listed in the present text of Chapter 22.)

Polycarp may not have specifically stated that he believed in the final destruction of those who reject Christ, but at least "he never intimates the endless existence of the lost in eternal suffering."²² Barring much evidence to the contrary, then, I feel I must classify him, along with his good friend, Ignatius, as a Conditionalist.

PAPIAS OF HIERAPOLIS

Papias was born approximately AD 70; we do not know where. He was a pupil of the Apostle John, a friend of "others who had seen the Lord," and of Polycarp of Smyrna, and served as Bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, during the first half of the second century. ²³ He was martyred in Pergamus around AD 163.²⁴

Papias wrote a five-volume book titled Explanation of the Lord's Discourses which was frequently quoted by later writers such as Irenaeus of Lyons (AD 130-202) and Eusebius of Caesarea (AD 263-339). Since no copies of this book have survived to the present day, we know of its contents only from fragments preserved in these quotations.

In none of these fragments does Papias deal directly with the question of human immortality, but there is one passage in which he quotes 1 Corinthians 15:25-26, where the Apostle Paul states, "For he (Jesus) must reign, till he (God) hath put all enemies under his (Jesus') feet. The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death." This is a "favorite" passage for many Conditionalists, who understand it as teaching that, first, unbelievers will be "destroyed," then, the destroying agent ("death") will itself cease to exist. The Naturalist writers I have consulted seldom refer to this passage at all. It would be difficult, on such slim evidence, to draw a conclusion as to what position Papias held, except to say that, if he were a Naturalist, he didn't leave any clues behind (that we know of) to convince us that he was. I therefore prefer to classify him, along with his good friend, Polycarp of Smyrna, as a Conditionalist.

THE WRITER(S) OF THE DIDACHE

The Didache , or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles , is a catechetical handbook (a manual to be used in instructing new converts to Christianity) written around AD 120 in either Egypt or Syria.²⁵ It presents the moral standards of Christianity as "the Way of Life" (Didache 1:2) and sin as "the Way of Death" (Didache 5:1).

So far from implying that this "death" involves endless torment of immortal souls, this earliest known attempt at "Systematic Theology" implies that unbelievers will not even so much as rise for judgment! Didache 16:6-7 says, "And 'then shall appear the signs' of the truth. First the sign spread out in Heaven, then the sign of the sound of the trumpet, and thirdly the resurrection of the dead: but not of all the dead, but as it was said, 'The Lord shall come and all his saints with him.'"²⁶

This position (the non-resurrection of the wicked dead) has, in modern times, been held by a small minority of Conditionalists —for example, by the "Life and Advent Union" denomination, which was founded in 1863, and merged with the Advent Christian General Conference of America in 1964 —but it has certainly never been held by any Naturalists! There is little question, then, but that I must classify the writer(s) of the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles with the other Conditionalists of the early part of the second century.

This fact can be further illustrated by reference to Didache 10:2, which says, "We give thanks to You, O Holy Father, for Your Holy Name which You have made to tabernacle in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and immortality which You have made known to us through Jesus Your Child."²⁷ This statement implies that the author(s) of the Didache  did not believe that immortality was a natural attribute of the human soul or spirit. The next verse (Didache 10:3) says, "You, Lord Almighty, have created all things for Your Name's sake, and have given food and drink to men for their enjoyment, that they might give thanks to You, but us have You blessed with spiritual food and drink and eternal light through Your Child (Jesus)."²⁸ This statement, too, implies that the author(s) did not believe that the unsaved (referred to in the verse as "men") naturally possess eternal life (referred to in the verse as "eternal light").

I am, therefore, convinced that the unknown author(s) of the Didache was, or were, Conditionalist(s).

QUADRATUS OF ATHENS

Quadratus was born toward the end of the first century, somewhere in Asia Minor. "According to Eusebius, he claimed to have been a disciple of the apostles."²⁹ He served as Bishop of Athens during the first half of the second century. We do not know anything about the time or circumstances of his death.

In AD 126, Quadratus wrote an Apology for the Christian Religion which was addressed to Emperor Hadrian. Only a small fragment of this work has been preserved.

What little we have of the Apology emphasizes the resurrection of the dead, frequently using such terms as "raised from the dead" and "raised up." It makes no mention whatever of the concept of an undying soul. Admittedly this evidence is scanty, but failing any other evidence than this, I prefer to classify Quadratus, at least tentatively, as a Conditionalist, along with his friend and fellow-citizen, Aristides of Athens.

MATHETES

Mathetes was born sometime during the second half of the first century; we do not know where. He was a pupil of the Apostle Paul or of one of Paul's associates.³⁰ We do not know anything about the time or circumstances of his death.

About AD 130, Mathetes wrote an Epistle to Diognetus (possibly the same Diognetus who was the tutor of the Roman Emperor, Marcus Aurelius), which was rediscovered in AD 1592. This Epistle is commonly referred to as Diognetus .

Diognetus 6:8 contains the earliest known reference to the term "immortal soul" in a Christian writing: "The immortal soul dwells in a mortal tabernacle." However, it is not clear that Mathetes believed in Natural Immortality! Several other references lead me to think otherwise. For example:

Diognetus 4:6 refers to any human being, in general, as "mortal." Diognetus 9:3 describes Christ as "the immortal One" and sinners as "those who are mortal."

In Diognetus 9:2, Mathetes speaks of "our unworthiness of attaining life" and in Diognetus 9:10, Mathetes states "that our nature was unable to attain to life," so that we must "esteem Him our...Life." All of these references seem to imply that Mathetes did not believe that human beings are naturally immortal.

Again, in Diognetus 9:3, Mathetes says that "when our wickedness had reached its height, and it had been clearly shown that its reward, punishment and death, was impending over us...He gave His own Son as a ransom for us...."

Furthermore, regarding the final punishment of the wicked, Diognetus 8:3 refers to "fire" as that "to which they themselves (i.e., pagan philosophers) [are] by and by to come," and Diognetus

10:20 states that "what is truly death...is reserved for those who shall be condemned to the eternal fire, which shall afflict those even to the end that are committed to it." ("The 'end' of what," one might well ask, "if not of their existence?")

Finally, in Diognetus 12:4, he says that "it is not the tree of knowledge that destroys —it is disobedience that proves destructive." Diognetus 12:5-6 go on to say, "God...planted the tree of life in the midst of paradise, revealing...the way to life....For neither can life exist without knowledge, nor is knowledge secure without life."

I feel justified, then, after all, though perhaps with something less than certainty, in classifying Mathetes, at least tentatively, as a Conditionalist.

CLEMENT OF CORINTH

The document commonly called 2 Clement has long been puzzling to patristic scholars. According to M.B. Riddle, it is the work of "an unknown author" who may have been the bishop of Corinth "between AD 120 and AD 140"³¹ – for this reason, I will call him "Clement of Corinth" as a means of honoring both the tradition that it written by "Clement" and the probability that it was written in Corinth.

2 Clement 1:7 states that Jesus Christ "saved us when we were ready to perish;" verse 9 of the same chapter adds that "our whole life was nothing else than death;" and verse 11 refers to "the destruction to which we were exposed (before He saved us)."

2 Clement 2:6 describes "sinners" (2 Clement 2:5, quoting Matthew 9:13) as "those who are perishing;" 2 Clement 2:8 also refers to them as "perishing" and "hastening to destruction."

By contrast, 2 Clement 5:5 describes "the promise of Christ" as "life everlasting," and verse 6 goes on to ask, "By what course of conduct, then, shall we attain [this blessing]?" Of course, no "course of conduct" would be necessary to "obtain" something that one already possessed by nature!

In Chapter 6, Clement discusses the "enmity" between "this world and the next" (verse 4). In this context, he describes the things "which are to come" as being "incorruptible" (verse 7). By contrast (if we do not "do the will of Christ"), "nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment" (verse 8). Since the opposite of "incorruptible" is, by definition, "corruptible," Clement's view of "eternal punishment" must be that of "corruption" (a word often used interchangeably with both "death" and "destruction" in the writings we have been studying).

Again, 2 Clement 7:3 refers to "the straight course" as "the race that is incorruptible" and 2 Clement 7:7 refers to it as "the incorruptible contest."

In Chapter 8, Clement says that "by doing the will of the Father, and keeping the flesh holy, and observing the commandments of the Lord, we shall obtain eternal life" (verse 4) and actually "quotes" the Lord as saying, "Keep the flesh holy and the seal undefiled, that ye may receive eternal life" (verse 6). "Some have thought this a quotation from an unknown apocryphal book, but it seems rather an explanation of the preceding words."³²

2 Clement 15:2 uses the rather rare expression "perishing soul" to describe an unsaved hearer of his message. In Chapter 17, he exhorts his hearers, "Let us therefore repent from the whole heart, that no one of us perish" (verse 1) and exclaims, "how much more ought a soul already knowing God not to perish!" (verse 2). Later in the same chapter, he says, "let us attempt to make advances in the commandments of the Lord, that…we may be gathered together unto life (clearly, eternal life)" (verse 4). By contrast, in verse 10, he says that "those that have …denied Jesus…are punished with grievous torments in unquenchable fire." He does not, however (as modern Naturalists often do), insist that these "torments" continue forever. Saying that the "fire" is "unquenchable" merely emphasizes that its destructive work will continue unabated until it is completed! Remember, this fate is positioned to be opposite to the promise of (eternal) "life" to those who escape it. It cannot consist, then, in "living forever" in a "worse condition." It must consist of eventually ceasing to live.

In Chapter 19, Clement urges his hearers to "repent with the whole heart, thus giving to yourselves salvation and [eternal] life" (verse 2). Later in the same chapter, he promises those who "suffer evil in the world" that "they shall enjoy the immortal fruit of the resurrection" (verse 8), leading to the experience of "living again…for an eternity" (verse 10).

Finally, in his concluding doxology, Clement refers to Jesus as the "Prince of incorruption" (2 Clement 20:6).

Clement's book (which is really a homily, or sermon) acquired the title "2 Clement " because for a long time it was mistakenly thought (by many people) to have been written by Clement of Rome, whose Epistle to the Corinthians (the only work he is known to have written) was therefore called "1 Clement " (see above). Certainly this mistake could not have been made had Clement of Corinth held to a different view of such a foundational doctrine as that of Human Immortality. But we have already seen that there is no doubt but that Clement of Rome was a Conditionalist. This fact alone – bolstered, however, as it is, by the numerous references just cited – is sufficient to make it clear that Clement of Corinth, like his predecessor and namesake, was a Conditionalist.

BARNABAS OF ALEXANDRIA

The so-called Epistle of Barnabas was written approximately AD 135 by an unknown Jewish Christian who is now commonly referred to as "Barnabas of Alexandria." This Barnabas is not the Apostle Barnabas, who accompanied the Apostle Paul; but he is usually classified as one of the Apostolic Fathers.³³

In several places Barnabas describes the reward of the Christian as an opportunity to "live forever" (thus implying that the unsaved will not live forever). For example:

In Barnabas 6:3, he quotes Isaiah 28:16 as saying, "he who hopes in him shall live forever." Actually, Isaiah 28:16 reads, "he that believeth shall not make haste." The Apostle Paul similarly rephrases this verse when he quotes it, in Romans 10:11, as saying, "Whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed."³⁴ In any case, Barnabas' point (by implication) is that those who do not "hope in him" will not "live forever."

In Barnabas 8:5, he refers to this quote again, saying, "And why was the wool put on the wood? Because the kingdom of Jesus is on the wood, and because those who hope on him shall live forever."³⁵

In Barnabas 9:6, he quotes Psalm 34:12 as asking, "Who is he that wishes to live forever?" Actually, Psalm 34:12 reads, "What man is he that desireth life, and loveth many days?" So, while David may only have been asking about a long life, Barnabas clearly understands him to be asking about eternal life. But, if human beings naturally possessed immortality, neither question would make any sense.

In Barnabas 11:10, he refers to Ezekiel 47:1-12 as teaching that "there was a river flowing on the right hand, and beautiful trees grew out of it, and whoever shall eat of them shall live forever."³⁶ This is a fair summary of the rather lengthy passage in Ezekiel. Barnabas 11:11 goes on to "explain" this teaching by saying, "He means that whoever hears and believes these things spoken shall live forever."³⁷

Regarding the destiny of unbelievers, Barnabas 6:2 quotes Isaiah 50:9 as saying, "Woe unto you, for you shall all wax old as a garment and the moth shall eat you up."³⁸ This is a fairly accurate quotation.

In Barnabas 11:7, he quotes Psalm 1:4-6 as saying, "It is not so with the wicked, it is not so; but they are even as the chaff which the wind drives away from the face of the earth. Therefore the wicked shall not rise up in judgment, nor sinners in the counsel of the righteous, for the Lord knows the way of the righteous, and the way of the ungodly shall perish."³⁹ This, too, is a fairly accurate quotation, and the passage is another "favorite" of many Conditionalist writers. Note that Barnabas has rephrased Psalm 1:5 slightly, so that it reads, "the wicked shall not rise up in judgment," where the Psalm actually says, "the wicked shall not stand in the judgment." This may be an indication that he held to the "non-resurrectionist" position I have described in connection with our discussion of the Didache (see page 19).

Barnabas 15:9 says, "His Son, coming [again], shall destroy the time of the wicked man, and judge the ungodly...." If the "time" of the wicked man is to be "destroyed" by the "judgment" of the "ungodly," the wicked and ungodly men must themselves be "destroyed," or they would somehow be existing without having any "time" in which to do so. Three verses later (15:12), Barnabas goes on to say, "we ourselves, having received the promise, wickedness no longer existing, and all things having been made new by the Lord, shall be able to work righteousness." If "wickedness" is no longer to be "existing" after the judgment day, then wicked, ungodly people must themselves no longer be existing then. So they certainly cannot be immortal if there is to come a time when they will cease to exist.

Barnabas 20:1 says that "the Way of the Black One (i.e., the Devil) is crooked and full of cursing, for it is the way of death eternal with punishment, and in it are the things that destroy their soul: idolatry, frowardness, arrogance of power, hypocrisy, double-heartedness, adultery, murder, robbery, pride, transgression, fraud, malice, self-sufficiency, enchantments, magic, covetousness, the lack of the fear of God;"⁴⁰

And Barnabas 21:1-3 says, "It is good, therefore, that he who has learned the ordinances of the Lord, as many as have been written, should walk in them. For he who does these things shall be glorified in the kingdom of God, and he who chooses the others shall perish with his works. For this reason there is a resurrection, for this reason there is a recompense."⁴¹

In the entire epistle no mention is made of an "immortal soul" or of "endless torment." Clearly, Barnabas of Alexandria must be classified as a Conditionalist.

ARISTIDES OF ATHENS

Marcianus Aristides was born sometime late in the first century, probably in Athens. He was a philosopher, and continued to wear his philosopher's robe after he became a Christian in the early part of the second century. We do not know anything about the time or circumstances of his death.

Aristides wrote an Apology approximately AD 140, addressed to the Roman Emperor, Antoninus. This book was lost for hundreds of years, but was rediscovered in the late nineteenth century. ⁴²

The Apology makes two statements on the subject of immortality. In Chapter 1, it says that "God" (not man!) is "immortal"; and, in Chapter 7, it says that man "has a beginning and an end" and is "destroyed" by "death." These affirmations are common in Conditionalist writings. On the other hand, Aristides does not make any statements that would incline me to the view that he was a Naturalist. Therefore, I classify him as a Conditionalist.

HERMAS OF ROME

Hermas was born approximately AD 100 in Rome. His brother, Pius I, served as the tenth Bishop of Rome AD 140-155.⁴³ Hermas and Pius may have been grandsons of the Hermas to whom the Apostle Paul sent greetings in Romans 16:14. We do not know anything about the time or circumstances of his death.

About AD 154, Hermas wrote a novel (a sort of "second-century Pilgrim's Progress ") called The Pastor (or The Shepherd ), which is in three parts, known, respectively, as the Visions , the Commandments , and the Similitudes (or Parables ). Pius officially commended this book "as a useful instruction for the people." As a result, it became very popular, and many people thought it should be included in the New Testament.

The Shepherd frequently uses the expression "live unto God" to mean "live forever" (a usage possibly derived from Romans 6:10, where the Apostle Paul, speaking of Christ, says, "in that he died, he died unto sin once: but in that he lives, he lives unto God" —clearly, in this context, meaning, "he lives forever"), and almost always connects this expression with some condition such as "if you shall keep all these commandments." Here are some examples of this usage:

"Keep these things, and cast all lust and iniquity far from you, and put on righteousness, and you shall live unto God, if you shall keep this commandment." (Commandments 1:5)

"And whoever shall hearken to this command, and do it, and shall depart from all lying, he shall live unto God." (Commandments 3:10)

"You shall live if you shall keep these my commandments. And whoever shall hear and do these commands shall live unto God." (Commandments 4:17)

"Keep therefore your chastity and modesty, and you shall live unto God." (Commandments 4:27)

"As many as shall repent with all their hearts, shall live unto God." (Commandments 5:9)

"Whoever shall observe these commandments shall live unto God." (Commandments 5:19)

"As many as shall submit to his work, shall live also unto God." (Commandments 6:18)

"Keep yourself therefore from them, that you may live unto God." (Commandments 8:7)

"If you shall keep all these commandments, you shall live unto God. And all those who shall keep these commandments shall live unto God." (Commandments 8:12)

"Do you therefore keep the virtue of faith, and depart from doubting, in which is no virtue, and you shall live unto God. And all shall live unto God, as many as do these things." (Commandments 9:11)

"Cleanse yourself from sadness, which is evil, and you shall live unto God. And all others shall live unto God, as many as shall lay aside sadness and put on cheerfulness." (Commandments 10:23)

"Whoever therefore shall depart from all evil desires, shall live unto God." (Commandments 12:6)

"Keep his commands, that you may live unto God." (Commandments 12:33) "And all they also shall keep them who shall cleanse their hearts from the vain desires of the present world, and shall live unto God." (Commandments 12:36)

"If you do these things, and fear him, and abstain from every evil work, you shall live unto God." (Similitudes 5:6) "Keep therefore both of them pure, and you shall live unto God." (Similitudes 5:63)

"Whoever shall walk in them shall live unto God." (Similitudes 6:1)

"Walk in my commands, and you shall live unto God." (Similitudes 6:6)

"Say unto all men that they repent, and they shall live unto God." (Similitudes 8:79)

"Whoever shall repent with all their hearts, and cleanse themselves from all the evils that I have before mentioned, and not add anything more to their sins, shall receive from the Lord the cure of their former iniquities, if they shall not make any doubt of these commands, and shall live unto God." (Similitudes 8:82)

"If these therefore shall repent, they shall live unto God." (Similitudes 9:204)

By contrast, in many places, Hermas describes the final destiny of the wicked as "death," "destruction," "not live," "die unto God," etc. Here are some examples of this usage: "The remembrance of evils works death." (Visions 2:23) "Be innocent and without disguise; so shall you be like an infant who knows no malice which destroys the life of man." (Commandments 2:1)

"They who do such things follow the way of death." (Commandments 4:2)

"The evil way has not a good end, but has many stumbling-blocks; it is rugged and full of thorns, and leads to destruction." (Commandments 6:4)

"He that cannot keep himself from these things, cannot live unto God." (Commandments 8:4)

"It is very horrible and wild: and by its wildness consumes men. And especially if a servant of God shall chance to fall into it, except he be very wise, he is ruined by it. For it destroys those who have not the garment of a good desire: and are engaged in the affairs of the present world; and delivers them unto death." (Commandments 12:2)

"They that are subject unto [evil desires] shall die forever." (Commandments 12:6)

"Fear the Lord Almighty, who is able to save and to destroy you." (Commandments 12:33)

"The wicked, like the trees which you saw dry, shall as such be found dry and without fruit in that other world; and like dry wood shall be burnt." (Similitudes 4:4)

"If you shall defile the Holy Spirit, you shalt not live." (Similitudes 5:59)

"These kind of men are ordained to death." (Similitudes 6:13)

"They that are dead, are utterly gone forever." (Similitudes 6:15)

"Whoever shall continue in them, and shall not repent of what they have done, shall bring death upon themselves." (Similitudes 6:44)

"All these are dead unto God: and you see that none of them have repented, although they have heard my commands which you have delivered to them. From these men therefore life is far distant." (Similitudes 8:52)

"They that shall not repent shall lose both [the opportunity for] repentance and life." (Similitudes 8:54) "For those who repent not, death is prepared." (Similitudes 8:55)

"They that shall not repent, but shall continue on in their wicked doings, shall die the death." (Similitudes 8:59)

"If anyone shall again return to his dissension, he shall be shut out from the tower, and shall lose his life." (Similitudes 8:63)

"By seditions and contempt of the law, they shall purchase death to themselves." (Similitudes 8:64)

"If they shall not repent, they shall die." (Similitudes 8:67)

"Many have altogether departed from God. These have utterly lost life." (Similitudes 8:68)

"If they shall continue in their evil doing they shall die." (Similitudes 8:69)

"They that repent not, but continue still in their pleasures, are nigh to death." (Similitudes 8:74)

"They that shall continue to add to their transgressions, and shall still converse with the lusts of the present world, shall condemn themselves to death." (Similitudes 8:83)

"If they shall live wickedly, they shall be doubly punished, and shall die forever." (Similitudes 9:173)

"If they shall continue in their evil courses, they shall be delivered to those women that will take away their life." (Similitudes 9:192)

"These also may live, if they shall presently repent; but if not, they shall be delivered to those women, who shall take away their life." (Similitudes 9:197)

"If you shall not [repent], you shall be delivered to him unto death." (Similitudes 9:209) "But he who will repent must hasten on his repentance, before the building of this tower is finished: otherwise he shall be delivered by those women to death." (Similitudes 9:225)

"The words of such persons infect and destroy men." (Similitudes 9:227)

"Some of them, having repented, have been saved, and so shall others of the same kind be also saved, if they shall repent; but if not, they shall die." (Similitudes 9:228)

"Take heed therefore, you who have such thoughts, that this mind continue not in you, and you die unto God." (Similitudes 9:238)

"If you shall continue in malice, and in the remembrance of injuries, no such sinners shall live

unto God." (Similitudes 9:276)

"But they that shall not keep his commands, flee from their life, and are adversaries to it. And they that follow not his commands, shall deliver themselves to death." (Similitudes 10:13)

"And whoever shall walk in these commands, shall live, and be happy in his life. But he that shall neglect them, shall not live." (Similitudes 10:23)

The doctrine of Conditional Immortality has perhaps never been more clearly expressed than in Commandments 7:6, which reads, "They only who fear the Lord and keep His commandments have life with God; but as to those who keep not His commandments, there is no life in them." "Hermas clearly does not hold to inherent, indefeasible immortality for the wicked."² At no point in this book (which is about as long, in verses, as the Gospel According to Matthew) does he mention, or even hint at, the concepts of the soul going to Heaven or Hell at death, the eternal torment of the damned, an "immortal soul," or an "undying spirit." Yet, so far from representing a minority position in the Early Church, we know that The Shepherd was quoted as Scripture by Irenaeus of Lyons (AD 130-202); was praised by Tertullian of Carthage (AD 145¬220); was considered divinely inspired by Origen of Alexandria (AD 185-254); was read publicly in the churches in the time of Eusebius of Caesarea (AD 263-339); was cited by Athanasius of Alexandria (AD 296-373); was applauded by Jerome of Bethlehem (AD 345¬420); and was attached to some of the most ancient manuscripts of the New Testament itself!⁴⁵ I must conclude both that Hermas himself was a Conditionalist and that he wrote The Shepherd at a time in history when Conditionalism was held by the predominant majority of Christians.

Furthermore, since we have now completed our study of the Apostolic Fathers, and found none of them to be Naturalists, I must agree with Dr. James K. Brandyberry's conclusion that, "the teaching of innate immortality is absent from the Apostolic Fathers, those Christian writers who lived nearest to or whose lives partly paralleled the last of the apostles."⁴⁶

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For more information, contact: Dr. John H. Roller 5847 Brookstone Dr. Concord, NC, USA 28027-2535 704-782-9574

johnroller@faithbiblechristian.com